European Pressurized Reactor

The EPR is a third generation pressurized water reactor (PWR) design. It has been designed and developed mainly by Framatome (now Areva NP), Electricité de France (EDF) in France, and Siemens AG in Germany. This reactor design was called in Europe European Pressurized Reactor, and the internationalized name of this reactor is Evolutionary Power Reactor, but is now simply named EPR by Areva.

As of 2011, four EPR units are under construction. The first two, in Finland and France, are both facing costly construction delays. This is anticipated to some degree. French experience indicates first of a kind plants will have higher cost and longer construction time. Construction commenced on two additional Chinese units in 2009 and 2010. The Chinese constructions are ahead or on schedule.[1]

Contents

Design

The main design objectives of the generation III EPR design are increased safety while providing enhanced economic competitiveness through improvements to previous PWR designs scaled up to an electrical power output of around 1650 MWe (net)[2] with thermal power 4500 MWt. The reactor can use 5% enriched uranium oxide fuel, reprocessed uranium fuel and 100% mixed uranium plutonium oxide fuel. The EPR is the evolutionary descendant of the Framatome N4 and Siemens Power Generation Division KONVOI reactors.[3][4]

The EPR design has several active and passive protection measures against accidents:

The EPR has a design maximum core damage frequency of 6.1 × 10−7 per plant per year.[5]

The Union of Concerned Scientists has referred to the EPR as the only new reactor design under consideration in the United States that "...appears to have the potential to be significantly safer and more secure against attack than today's reactors."[6]

On November 4, 2009, the nuclear power regulatory authorities in France, Finland and the United Kingdom issued a joint letter to Areva, citing serious problems with the EPR's digital Instrumentation and Control systems (I&C). The letter stated:

"The issue is primarily around ensuring the adequacy of the safety systems (those used to maintain control of the plant if it goes outside normal conditions), and their independence from the control systems (those used to operate the plant under normal conditions).

Independence is important because, if a safety system provides protection against the failure of a control system, then they should not fail together. The EPR design, as originally proposed by the licensees and the manufacturer, AREVA, doesn’t comply with the independence principle, as there is a very high degree of complex interconnectivity between the control and safety systems."

Olkiluoto 3 (Areva's first plant)

The construction of the Olkiluoto 3[7] power plant in Finland commenced in August 2005. It was initially scheduled to go online in 2009,[8] but the project has suffered many delays, and operation is now expected to start in 2014.[9] It is still expected to be the first EPR reactor built in the world. The construction is a joint effort of French Areva and German Siemens AG through their common subsidiary Areva NP, for Finnish operator TVO. Initial cost estimates were about € 3.7 billion,[10] but there were additional cost overruns of € 2.7 billion at June 2010.[11] The plant will have an electrical power output of 1600 MWe (net).[2]

Progress

In May 2006 construction delays of about one year were announced, following quality control problems across the construction. In part the delays were due to the lack of oversight of subcontractors inexperienced in nuclear construction.[12][13] The delays led to disappointing financial results for the Areva NP. It blamed delays on the Finnish approach to approving technical documentation and designs.[14][15]

In December 2006 TVO announced construction was about 18 months behind schedule so completion was now expected 2010–11, and there were reports that Areva was preparing to take a € 500 million charge on its accounts for the delay.[16][17]

At the end of June 2007 it was reported that Säteilyturvakeskus, the Finnish Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, had found a number of safety-related design and manufacturing 'deficiencies'.[18] In August 2007 a further construction delay of up to a year was reported associated with construction problems in reinforcing the reactor building to withstand an airplane crash, and the timely supply of adequate documentation to the Finnish authorities.[19][20][21]

In September 2007 TVO reported the construction delay as "at least two years" and costs more than 25% over budget.[22] Cost estimates by analysts for the over-run range up to € 1.5 billion.[23]

A further delay was announced in October 2008, making the total delay three years, giving an expected online date of 2012.[24] The parties are in arbitration to resolve a dispute over responsibility for the delays and final cost overruns.[25][26]

As of May 2009, the plant was at least three and a half years behind schedule and more than 50 percent over-budget. Areva and the utility involved "are in bitter dispute over who will bear the cost overruns and there is a real risk now that the utility will default".[27] In August 2009 Areva announced € 550 million additional provisions for the build, taking plant costs to € 5.3 billion, and wiped out interim operating profits for the first half year of 2009.[28]

The dome of the containment structure was topped out in September 2009.[29] 90% of procurement, 80% of engineering works and 73% of civil works were completed.[30]

In June 2010 Areva announced € 400 million of further provisions, taking the cost overrun to € 2.7 billion. The timescale slipped to the end of 2012 from June 2012,[31] with operation set to start in 2013.[32] In December 2011 TVO announced a further delay to August 2014.[9]

Flamanville 3 (EDF's first plant)

See also: Nuclear power in France

First concrete was poured for the demonstration EPR reactor at the Flamanville Nuclear Power Plant on December 6, 2007.[33] This will be the third unit on the site and the second EPR ever constructed. Electrical output will be 1630 MWe (net)[2] and the project involves around € 3.3 billion of capital expenditure from EdF.[34] The following is a condensed timeline for the unit:

Protests

Progress

In April 2008 the French nuclear safety agency (Autorité de sûreté nucléaire, ASN) reported that a quarter of the welds inspected in the secondary containment steel liner are not in accordance with norms, and that cracks have been found in the concrete base. EDF stated that progress is being made on these issues raised very early in construction,[43] however on 21 May ASN ordered a suspension of concrete pouring on the site.[44] A month later concreting work resumed after ASN accepted EDF's corrective action plan which included external oversight checks.[45]

In August 2010 the regulator, ASN, reported further welding problems on the secondary containment steel liner.[36]

Taishan 1 & 2

See also: Nuclear power in China

In 2006, there was a bidding in process to build four new EPR reactors in China,[46] Areva SA lost this bid in favor Westinghouse Electric Company to build four AP1000 reactors, because of its refusal to transfer the expertise and knowledge to China. In February 2007 Areva won another deal, worth about € 5 billion, for two other nuclear reactors located in Taishan, Guangdong Province in southern China in spite of sticking to its previous conditions.[47] The local partner for this project is the China Guangdong Nuclear Power Company. In November 2007, French president Nicolas Sarkozy signed a $12 billion deal that will allow the third and fourth EPR units to be constructed in China.[48]

Progress

The construction of the first reactor at Taishan started officially on 18 November 2009, and the second on 15 April 2010.[49] Construction of each unit is planned to take 46 months, significantly faster and cheaper than the first two EPRs in Finland and France.[50]

Future power plants

France

In July 2008 the French President announced a second EPR would be built in France due to high oil and gas prices.[51] Penly was chosen as the site in 2009, with construction planned to start in 2012.[52] However in 2011, following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, EdF postponed public consultations putting in doubt the 2012 construction start date.[53]

United Kingdom

See also: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom

The EPR is one of two reactors undergoing Generic Design Assessment by the Health and Safety Executive, along with the Westinghouse AP1000.[54] The 4th GDA report was expected to be released in June 2011 with possible interim Design Acceptance Confirmations. Any such interim Design Acceptance Confirmations have been postponed until recent learnings from Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster has been taken into account.[55]

UK plans to introduce a carbon floor tax which will increase the cost for using fossil energy.[56] Building new nuclear power capacity based on AP1000 and EPR has attracted interest from many continental electric utilities.

EDF bought British Energy in 2009. EDF want to build 4 new EPRs[57] Horizon Nuclear Power is planning to build 6,000MWe based on AP1000, EPR or a combination of both types.[58] NuGeneration also want to build new nuclear power, possibly 2 EPRs or 3 AP1000s.[59]

Areva has been signing a strategic partnership with Rolls Royce to support the build of EPRs.[60]

Finland

See also: Nuclear power in Finland

In 2010 the Finnish parliament decided to allow two new reactors. Both TVO and Fennovoima are considering the EPR.[61][62]

United States

See also: Nuclear power in the United States

The US-EPR is one of the competitors for the next generation of nuclear plants in the United States, along with the AP1000 and the ESBWR. It is currently in the Design Certification Application Review process at the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), with expectation to submit an application for final design approval and standard design certification on December 14, 2007.[63] UniStar, Amarillo Power, PPL Corp and AmerenUE announced plans to file a Combined Construction and Operating License application in 2008 for the US-EPR at its Callaway plant. UniStar filed a partial application in July 2007 for a proposed third unit at the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant in Maryland. However, both proposals were subsequently cancelled.

In April 2009, Missouri legislators balked at preconstruction rate increases, prompting AmerenUE to suspend plans for its reactor.[64][65]

In July 2010, Constellation Energy Group cut spending on UniStar for the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant because of uncertainties for a loan guarantee from the U.S. Department of Energy,[66][67] and subsequently pulled out of the project.[68]

In October 2008, Areva announced that it will partner with US defense firm Northrop Grumman to establish a US$380 million facility to construct modules and assemblies for the EPR and US-EPR reactors at Northrop Grumman's Newport News Shipyard in Virginia.[69][70] The project was suspended indefinitely in May 2011 [1]

India

See also: Nuclear power in India

In February 2009, NPCIL Signed MOU with Areva to set up two 1650 MWe reactors at Jaitapur in Maharashtra.

In December 2010, NPCIL signed a framework with Areva for 2 EPRs and 25 years supply of nuclear fuel.[71] The contract and pricing is yet to be finalised. Construction is unlikely to start before 2014 because of regulatory issues and difficulty in sourcing major components from Japan due to India not being a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.[72]

NPCIL has ambitions to build up to 9900MW at the Jaitapur site, equating to 6 EPRs.[73]

Lost opportunities

Abu Dhabi

See also: Nuclear power in the United Arab Emirates

In March 2008, French president Nicolas Sarkozy reached an agreement with the UAE cabinet that "outlines a cooperation framework for the assessment and possible use of nuclear energy for peaceful ends." This agreement was not a contract for EPR construction by any of the French nuclear companies, Total S.A., Suez or Areva.[74]

In May 2009, US President Barack Obama signed a similar agreement with the UAE. The deal, which has not yet been ratified by the US Congress, pledges US aid in the development of a civilian nuclear energy program in the UAE. Contracts for reactors were not given, nor was there any guarantee made that US companies would receive them.[75]

In December 2009 the United Arab Emirates declined both the American and French bids and awarded a contract for construction of four non-EPR plants (APR-1400) to a South Korean group including Korea Electric Power Corporation, Hyundai Engineering and Construction, Samsung and Doosan Heavy Industries.[76]

After losing this order, Areva is considering whether it should reintroduce the marketing of a smaller and simpler second-generation reactor design alongside the EPR, for countries that are new to nuclear power.[77] As of 2011 Areva and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries offer a smaller 1100MWe ATMEA1 Generation III PWR, although none have been ordered so far.[78]

Italy

See also: Nuclear power in Italy

On 24 February 2009, Italy and France agreed to study the feasibility of building 4 new nuclear power stations in Italy.[79] Following this, on 3 August 2009, EDF and Enel established a joint venture, Sviluppo Nucleare Italia, to study the feasibility of building at least four EPRs.[80]

However in the 2011 referendum, soon after the Fukushima nuclear disaster, Italians voted to abrogate the new regulations permitting nuclear power in Italy. Abrogation of new laws is put in effect when at least 50%+1 electors make a valid vote and a majority of these voters are in favour of abrogation. In this referendum there was a 55% valid voter turnout and 94% voted to abrogate the new regulations.

See also

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